The Psychological Legacy of Slavery and Racism on the Modern American Professional Military: A Call for More Action

Dr. Jerry Don Smith Jr.

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Introduction

The United States military, a pillar of national defense and a symbol of patriotism, has a complex history intertwined with the nation’s dark chapters of slavery and systemic racism. Despite the strides made towards equality, the psychological legacy of American slavery and racism continues to cast a long shadow over the modern professional military. This article argues that the military is not doing enough to counteract this legacy and provides novel, evidence-based strategies to combat it.

Historical Context

To understand the psychological legacy of slavery and racism in the military, one must first appreciate the historical context. The institution of slavery, which lasted over 200 years, and the subsequent era of Jim Crow laws, have left indelible marks on American society, including the military. Despite desegregation efforts, the military has struggled to eliminate racial disparities fully.

Slavery and Its Enduring Impact

The origins of American slavery trace back to the early 17th century when the first African slaves were brought to the Jamestown colony in Virginia in 1619. Over the next two centuries, slavery became deeply entrenched in the economic and social fabric of the southern states, where plantations relied heavily on the forced labor of African Americans.

Slaves were subjected to brutal treatment, stripped of their identities, and denied basic human rights. This dehumanization created a social hierarchy that positioned white people at the top and black people at the bottom, a structure that would persist long after the abolition of slavery. The end of slavery, marked by the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the subsequent 13th Amendment in 1865, did not dismantle the deeply ingrained racial biases and social structures that had developed over centuries.

The Civil War and Reconstruction

The Civil War (1861–1865) was a pivotal moment in American history, fundamentally transforming the nation’s legal and social landscape. The Union’s victory led to the abolition of slavery, but the post-war Reconstruction era (1865–1877) was fraught with challenges. During Reconstruction, the federal government attempted to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved people into society as free citizens. This period saw significant advancements, including the establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau and the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments, which granted citizenship and voting rights to African Americans.

However, these gains were met with fierce resistance from white southerners, leading to the rise of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan. The end of Reconstruction marked the beginning of the Jim Crow era, characterized by the systematic disenfranchisement and segregation of African Americans. The legacy of these laws would profoundly affect African Americans’ opportunities and treatment in all areas of life, including military service.

Jim Crow and Segregation in the Military

The Jim Crow laws, enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination. These laws mandated separate public facilities for blacks and whites, creating a system of inequality that permeated every aspect of life. The military was not exempt from these practices. African American soldiers were segregated into separate units, often given menial tasks, and denied the same opportunities for advancement as their white counterparts.

During World War I, over 350,000 African Americans served in the military, but they faced severe discrimination and were often relegated to labor battalions rather than combat roles. The experiences of African American soldiers in World War I highlighted the stark contradictions between fighting for democracy abroad while being denied basic rights at home.

World War II saw a similar pattern, with more than one million African Americans serving in the armed forces. Despite their significant contributions, these soldiers faced segregation and discrimination both in the military and upon their return home. The Tuskegee Airmen, an all-black squadron of fighter pilots, became emblematic of the challenges and triumphs of African American service members. Despite their exceptional performance, they faced considerable barriers due to their race.

The Path to Desegregation

The desegregation of the military began with President Harry S. Truman’s Executive Order 9981 in 1948, which declared, “There shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin.” This landmark decision paved the way for the integration of African American soldiers into all branches of the military.

However, the implementation of desegregation was neither immediate nor smooth. Resistance from within the military and broader societal prejudices slowed progress. It wasn’t until the Korean War (1950–1953) that significant strides were made towards integrating African American soldiers into regular combat units. The Vietnam War further accelerated this process, as the need for personnel led to more integrated units.

Despite these advancements, African American service members continued to face challenges. Discrimination, unequal treatment, and racial tensions persisted, often exacerbated by broader social movements such as the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. The military’s struggle to fully integrate reflected the nation’s ongoing battle with racism and inequality.

The Modern Military and Racial Disparities

Today, the U.S. military is one of the most diverse institutions in the country, with African Americans making up a significant portion of the armed forces. However, racial disparities persist, particularly in terms of leadership representation, career advancement, and treatment within the ranks.

Studies have shown that African American service members are underrepresented in senior leadership positions compared to their white counterparts (James, 2017). This disparity is indicative of broader issues within the military’s promotion and evaluation systems, which often fail to account for the unique challenges faced by minority service members.

Moreover, reports of racial discrimination and harassment continue to surface, highlighting the need for more robust policies and practices to address these issues (Military Leadership Diversity Commission, 2011). The psychological impact of these experiences cannot be understated, as they contribute to a sense of alienation and mistrust among African American service members.

The Psychological Impact of Slavery and Racism

The psychological effects of slavery and racism are profound and multifaceted. They include internalized racism, a sense of inferiority, and systemic mistrust of institutions, including the military. These psychological scars affect the mental health and career progression of African American service members.

Internalized Racism

The persistent stereotypes and systemic racism experienced by African Americans can lead to internalized racism, where individuals accept negative societal beliefs about their own race. This internalization can diminish self-esteem and hinder career advancement within the military (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000).

African American service members often face stereotypes that question their competence and capability. Such stereotypes are not only damaging but also pervasive, affecting how African Americans view themselves and their potential. For instance, the stereotype that African Americans are less intelligent or capable than their white counterparts can lead to a phenomenon known as stereotype threat, where the fear of confirming a negative stereotype leads to decreased performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995).

Sense of Inferiority

The legacy of slavery has instilled a sense of inferiority among African Americans, which can manifest as a lack of confidence in their abilities and a reluctance to seek leadership positions. This psychological barrier is a significant impediment to achieving true racial equality in the military (Sue et al., 2007).

The historical narrative of African Americans as second-class citizens, reinforced by centuries of discriminatory policies and practices, contributes to this sense of inferiority. Within the military, this can result in African American service members doubting their qualifications for promotions or leadership roles, leading to self-selection out of competitive opportunities. This phenomenon perpetuates the underrepresentation of African Americans in senior military positions.

Systemic Mistrust

Historical injustices have fostered a deep-seated mistrust of institutions among African Americans. This mistrust extends to the military, where discriminatory practices and unequal treatment continue to be reported (Feagin & Sikes, 1994).

For example, African American service members have reported experiences of racial discrimination in evaluations, promotions, and disciplinary actions. This mistrust is further fueled by the military justice system, where African Americans are disproportionately likely to face court-martial and other severe punishments compared to their white counterparts (Department of Defense, 2020). Such disparities reinforce the belief that the military is an institution where racial biases are not adequately addressed.

Mental Health Consequences

The psychological impact of racism also extends to mental health. African American service members are at a higher risk of developing mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), due to the cumulative stress of dealing with racism (Pieterse et al., 2012).

Studies have shown that the chronic stress associated with experiencing racism can lead to a range of mental health problems. For instance, racial microaggressions, which are subtle, often unintentional, discriminatory comments or behaviors, have been linked to increased levels of stress and depression among African Americans (Sue et al., 2007). In the military context, the added stress of deployment and combat can exacerbate these issues, making it essential to provide targeted mental health support for African American service members.

Case Studies and Personal Testimonies

To illustrate these points, consider the experiences of African American veterans like Henry Johnson, a World War I hero who received the French Croix de Guerre for his bravery but was largely ignored by the U.S. military and government upon his return. Johnson’s story highlights the systemic racism that has historically undervalued African American contributions to the military (Loewen, 1995).

Similarly, the experiences of contemporary African American service members, as documented in various military studies and reports, reveal ongoing issues. For example, a 2019 report by the Government Accountability Office found that African American service members were more likely to be investigated, court-martialed, and discharged for misconduct compared to their white peers, pointing to systemic biases within military justice (GAO, 2019).

Current Efforts and Their Shortcomings

While the military has implemented several programs to address racism, these efforts have often fallen short. Diversity training, while beneficial, is frequently superficial and fails to address deeper systemic issues. Moreover, the lack of minority representation in leadership positions perpetuates the cycle of inequality.

Diversity Training

Although diversity training is a step in the right direction, it often lacks depth and fails to challenge the underlying biases and systemic issues. These programs need to be more comprehensive and ongoing rather than one-off sessions (Dobbin & Kalev, 2016).

Effective diversity training should focus on changing behavior and attitudes by fostering a deeper understanding of implicit biases and their impact. However, many current programs are criticized for being too generic, failing to address the specific context and challenges within the military. Additionally, the lack of follow-up and reinforcement of training means that any gains made during these sessions are often short-lived.

For instance, a study by Bezrukova, Jehn, and Spell (2012) found that diversity training programs in organizations, including the military, are often more successful when they are part of a larger, systemic approach to diversity management rather than isolated efforts. Programs that are not integrated into the broader organizational culture and policy tend to have limited effectiveness.

Leadership Representation

The underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions is a significant issue. Without diverse leaders, the perspectives and concerns of minority service members are often overlooked, leading to policies and practices that do not fully address their needs (Griffin & Armstead, 2021).

A 2018 study by the RAND Corporation found that while African Americans make up about 17% of the active-duty military, they account for only 8% of officers. This disparity is even more pronounced at higher ranks, with African Americans representing only 6% of general officers. The lack of minority representation in leadership roles means that there are fewer mentors and role models for African American service members, which can impact their career progression and retention rates (RAND, 2018).

Inadequate Mentorship Programs

One of the key areas where current efforts fall short is in the provision of effective mentorship programs for minority service members. Mentorship is crucial for career development, yet many African American service members report a lack of access to mentors who understand their unique challenges.

According to Thomas (2001), effective mentorship can significantly enhance the career progression of minority employees by providing guidance, support, and opportunities for professional growth. However, in the military, mentorship programs are often informal and ad-hoc, lacking the structure and resources needed to be truly effective.

Limited Impact of Diversity Initiatives

Diversity initiatives in the military, such as the establishment of diversity offices and the appointment of diversity officers, often fail to produce substantial change due to a lack of authority and resources. These offices are frequently underfunded and understaffed, limiting their ability to implement and sustain meaningful programs.

Moreover, the effectiveness of these initiatives is often undermined by a lack of buy-in from senior leadership. Without strong support from the top, diversity programs struggle to gain the necessary traction to bring about lasting change (Kalev, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006).

Inconsistent Implementation of Policies

Another major shortcoming is the inconsistent implementation of anti-racism policies across different units and branches of the military. While policies may be well-crafted at the higher levels, their effectiveness depends on how well they are executed at the ground level.

Research by the Military Leadership Diversity Commission (2011) indicates that there is significant variation in how diversity and inclusion policies are enforced, leading to disparities in experiences among service members. This inconsistency can create environments where racism and discrimination are not adequately addressed, perpetuating a cycle of inequality.

Lack of Comprehensive Data and Transparency

The military’s efforts to address racism are further hampered by a lack of comprehensive data and transparency regarding racial disparities. While some data is collected and reported, there are significant gaps that prevent a full understanding of the scope and nature of the problem.

For example, a report by the Government Accountability Office (2020) highlighted the need for better data collection and analysis to identify and address disparities in military justice outcomes. Without robust data, it is challenging to develop targeted interventions and measure their effectiveness.

Psychological Impact of Inadequate Efforts

The shortcomings of current efforts to address racism have significant psychological impacts on African American service members. The persistence of racism and discrimination can lead to feelings of alienation, decreased morale, and a lack of trust in the institution.

A study by Litz et al. (2009) on the psychological impact of military service found that experiences of discrimination and lack of support can exacerbate stress and mental health issues among minority service members. This highlights the urgent need for more effective and comprehensive approaches to tackling racism in the military.

Current efforts to address the legacy of slavery and racism in the military are inadequate and often superficial. While diversity training and other initiatives are important steps, they must be part of a broader, systemic approach that includes comprehensive psychological support, effective mentorship, strong leadership representation, and robust data collection and transparency. By addressing these shortcomings, the military can create a more inclusive and equitable environment for all service members.

Proposed Strategies for Change

To effectively combat the legacy of slavery and racism, the military must adopt innovative and evidence-based strategies. These strategies should aim to address the root causes of racial disparities and promote a more inclusive and equitable environment.

Implementing Comprehensive Psychological Support Programs

The military should establish comprehensive psychological support programs specifically designed to address the unique challenges faced by minority service members. These programs should include:

• Culturally Competent Counseling: Providing access to counselors trained in cultural competency who understand the specific psychological impacts of racism and can offer relevant support (Sue et al., 2009).

Culturally competent counseling is essential because traditional counseling methods may not adequately address the specific needs of minority service members. Counselors trained in cultural competency can better understand the cultural background, experiences, and challenges faced by African American service members, leading to more effective support and treatment.

For instance, the incorporation of cultural competence in counseling has been shown to improve the therapeutic alliance between counselors and clients, which is crucial for the success of counseling interventions (Sue et al., 2009). By acknowledging and addressing the unique experiences of racism and discrimination, culturally competent counselors can help minority service members develop coping strategies and resilience.

• Mentorship Programs: Establishing mentorship programs that pair minority service members with experienced mentors who can offer guidance and support throughout their careers (Ragins, 2007).

Effective mentorship programs are vital for career development and personal growth. Mentors can provide valuable insights, advice, and support, helping mentees navigate the complexities of their careers and overcome challenges. For African American service members, having mentors who understand their unique experiences and challenges can be particularly beneficial.

Research by Ragins (2007) indicates that mentorship programs that are structured and formalized tend to be more effective than informal arrangements. Formal mentorship programs should include training for mentors, regular check-ins, and clear goals and expectations. Additionally, pairing minority service members with mentors who share similar backgrounds or experiences can enhance the mentoring relationship and provide more relevant guidance.

• Support Groups: Creating support groups where minority service members can share their experiences and strategies for coping with racism and discrimination (Harrell & Miller, 1997).

Support groups provide a safe space for minority service members to discuss their experiences, share coping strategies, and receive emotional support from their peers. These groups can help reduce feelings of isolation and provide a sense of community.

Studies have shown that support groups can be effective in improving mental health and well-being among individuals facing similar challenges (Harrell & Miller, 1997). In the military context, support groups can also serve as a platform for advocating for change and raising awareness about issues of racism and discrimination.

Reforming Recruitment and Promotion Practices

The military must overhaul its recruitment and promotion practices to ensure they are free from bias and promote diversity. Specific steps include:

• Blind Recruitment Processes: Implementing blind recruitment processes where identifying information is removed from applications to reduce unconscious bias (Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2004).

Blind recruitment processes involve removing identifying information such as names, addresses, and photos from applications to reduce the potential for unconscious bias. This approach can help ensure that candidates are evaluated based on their qualifications and experience rather than their race or ethnicity.

A study by Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) found that resumes with traditionally white-sounding names were more likely to receive callbacks than those with African American-sounding names, despite having identical qualifications. Implementing blind recruitment processes in the military can help mitigate such biases and promote a more diverse workforce.

• Diverse Promotion Panels: Ensuring that promotion panels are diverse and trained to recognize and counteract their biases (Kalev, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006).

Diverse promotion panels can help reduce biases in the promotion process by ensuring that multiple perspectives are considered. Training panel members to recognize and counteract their biases is also crucial for fair evaluations.

Research by Kalev, Dobbin, and Kelly (2006) indicates that organizations with diverse promotion panels are more likely to achieve equitable outcomes in promotions. The military should ensure that promotion panels include individuals from diverse backgrounds and provide regular training on implicit bias and equitable evaluation practices.

• Transparency in Promotion Criteria: Making the criteria for promotions transparent and objective to prevent discrimination and ensure fairness (Hicks, 2019).

Transparency in promotion criteria can help prevent discrimination by ensuring that all candidates are evaluated based on clear and objective standards. This approach can also help build trust in the promotion process and reduce perceptions of bias.

Hicks (2019) emphasizes the importance of transparency in performance evaluations and promotions for achieving equitable outcomes. The military should clearly communicate the criteria for promotions and ensure that these criteria are applied consistently across all units and branches.

Creating Accountability Mechanisms

To ensure that anti-racism efforts are effective, the military must establish robust accountability mechanisms. These should include:

• Regular Audits: Conducting regular audits of recruitment, promotion, and disciplinary actions to identify and address any racial disparities (Hirsh & Cha, 2018).

Regular audits can help identify patterns of racial disparities in recruitment, promotion, and disciplinary actions. By analyzing this data, the military can develop targeted interventions to address these disparities and ensure equitable treatment for all service members.

Hirsh and Cha (2018) highlight the importance of regular audits in identifying and addressing racial disparities in organizations. The military should establish a systematic process for conducting audits and use the findings to inform policy and practice changes.

• Whistleblower Protections: Strengthening protections for whistleblowers who report racism and discrimination, ensuring they can do so without fear of retaliation (Near & Miceli, 1985).

Whistleblower protections are crucial for encouraging individuals to report incidents of racism and discrimination. Without adequate protections, service members may fear retaliation and be reluctant to come forward.

Research by Near and Miceli (1985) indicates that strong whistleblower protections can enhance organizational accountability and transparency. The military should implement robust protections for whistleblowers and establish clear procedures for reporting and addressing incidents of racism and discrimination.

• Performance Metrics: Developing performance metrics that evaluate leaders based on their efforts to promote diversity and combat racism (Cox, 1994).

Incorporating diversity and anti-racism efforts into performance evaluations can incentivize leaders to prioritize these issues. Performance metrics should assess leaders’ effectiveness in promoting diversity, addressing incidents of racism, and creating an inclusive environment.

Cox (1994) argues that integrating diversity-related metrics into performance evaluations can drive organizational change and improve outcomes. The military should develop and implement performance metrics that hold leaders accountable for their efforts to promote diversity and combat racism.

Enhancing Education and Training

Education and training programs should be expanded and improved to foster a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts. These programs should include:

• Historical Education: Incorporating comprehensive education on the history of slavery and racism in the United States, and its impact on the military, into training programs (Ladson-Billings, 1995).

Understanding the historical context of slavery and racism is essential for addressing its legacy. Training programs should include comprehensive education on the history of slavery, Jim Crow laws, and the civil rights movement, as well as their impact on the military.

Ladson-Billings (1995) emphasizes the importance of culturally relevant education in promoting understanding and addressing systemic issues. By incorporating historical education into training programs, the military can help service members understand the roots of racism and the importance of diversity and inclusion.

• Implicit Bias Training: Providing ongoing training on implicit bias and how it affects decision-making and interactions within the military (Greenwald & Krieger, 2006).

Implicit bias training can help service members recognize and address their unconscious biases, leading to more equitable interactions and decision-making. Ongoing training is essential for reinforcing these concepts and promoting lasting change.

Research by Greenwald and Krieger (2006) highlights the impact of implicit bias on behavior and decision-making. The military should provide regular implicit bias training for all service members and incorporate these principles into leadership development programs.

• Conflict Resolution Skills: Teaching conflict resolution skills to help service members address and resolve incidents of racism and discrimination constructively (Deutsch, 1993).

Effective conflict resolution skills are crucial for addressing incidents of racism and discrimination. Training programs should teach service members how to navigate and resolve conflicts constructively, promoting a more inclusive environment.

Deutsch (1993) emphasizes the importance of conflict resolution skills in fostering a peaceful and equitable society. The military should incorporate conflict resolution training into its education programs to help service members address and resolve issues of racism and discrimination effectively.

Fostering an Inclusive Culture

Creating an inclusive culture within the military is essential for combating the legacy of racism. This can be achieved through:

• Inclusive Leadership Training: Training leaders at all levels on the importance of inclusivity and how to foster an inclusive environment (Chin, Desormeaux, & Sawyer, 2016).

Inclusive leadership training can help leaders understand the importance of diversity and develop the skills needed to create an inclusive environment. Training should focus on fostering empathy, understanding different perspectives, and promoting equitable treatment.

Chin, Desormeaux, and Sawyer (2016) argue that inclusive leadership is crucial for achieving organizational diversity and equity. The military should provide regular training for leaders at all levels on how to promote inclusivity and address issues of racism and discrimination.

• Celebrating Diversity: Celebrating and recognizing the contributions of minority service members through awards, events, and public recognition (Thomas, 2004).

Recognizing and celebrating diversity can help create a more inclusive culture and highlight the contributions of minority service members. This can be achieved through awards, events, and public recognition of achievements.

Thomas (2004) emphasizes the importance of recognizing and celebrating diversity in promoting an inclusive organizational culture. The military should establish programs and initiatives to celebrate the contributions of minority service members and promote diversity.

• Open Dialogue: Encouraging open dialogue about race and racism within the military, creating safe spaces for these discussions (Bell & Hartmann, 2007).

Open dialogue about race and racism can help raise awareness, promote understanding, and address issues of discrimination. Creating safe spaces for these discussions is essential for fostering an inclusive environment.

Bell and Hartmann (2007) highlight the importance of open dialogue in addressing cultural ambiguities and promoting inclusivity. The military should encourage open discussions about race and racism and provide support for service members who wish to engage in these conversations.

Conclusion

The psychological legacy of American slavery and racism continues to profoundly affect the modern American professional military. Despite various efforts to address these issues, current measures are often insufficient, failing to fully dismantle the deep-rooted systemic biases that persist within the institution. This article has highlighted several key areas where the military falls short and proposed innovative, evidence-based strategies to address these shortcomings.

By implementing comprehensive psychological support programs, the military can better support minority service members who face unique challenges due to their race. Culturally competent counseling, effective mentorship programs, and supportive peer groups are essential components of this approach. Reforming recruitment and promotion practices to eliminate bias and promote diversity is another critical step. Blind recruitment processes, diverse promotion panels, and transparent promotion criteria can help ensure fair treatment and equal opportunities for all service members.

Creating robust accountability mechanisms is crucial for the success of these initiatives. Regular audits, strong whistleblower protections, and performance metrics that evaluate leaders on their diversity and anti-racism efforts will help maintain accountability and drive progress. Enhancing education and training programs to include comprehensive historical education, implicit bias training, and conflict resolution skills will foster a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts, promoting a more inclusive military culture.

Finally, fostering an inclusive culture through inclusive leadership training, celebrating diversity, and encouraging open dialogue about race and racism is essential for creating a military environment where all service members feel valued and respected.

Final Thoughts

The military, as a microcosm of American society, reflects the broader issues of racism and inequality that have plagued the nation for centuries. Addressing the psychological legacy of American slavery and racism in the military requires a multifaceted and sustained effort. It demands a commitment to change at all levels of the institution, from senior leadership to individual service members.

By acknowledging the historical context and the ongoing impact of racism, the military can begin to heal the wounds of the past and build a stronger, more unified force. The proposed strategies outlined in this article provide a roadmap for achieving this goal. However, these strategies will only be effective if they are implemented with genuine commitment and a willingness to confront uncomfortable truths.

The journey towards a more inclusive and equitable military will not be easy, but it is a necessary one. By taking these steps, the military can honor its values of honor, courage, and commitment, ensuring that all who serve are given the respect and opportunities they deserve.

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